Difference between revisions of "Green Ships"

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== '''General Harms''' ==
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== '''Overview''' ==
Ships serve many purposes, primarily to transport consumer goods. Ship owners unquestionably attempt to keep their ships in excellent condition both to refrain from expensive repair costs and to maximize its usage. Ships life span 20-25 years, end of 2000 average age of ships in cargo fleet was 19 years. (Dodds). It is more profitable for ship owners to recycle ships after about 20 years due to high cost of repairs and modifications to further extend life of ship. (Dodds)Difficult, near impossible to find cargo for older ships due to insurance companies refusing insurance coverage on cargo booked ships over 20 years old. (Dodds)
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Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
To maintain average, 1900 ships to be recycled each year, currently 500-700 ships scrapped annually. (Dodds)
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This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.
Although ship owners go through great care to keep their ships operative, Ships  are decommissioned when deemed no longer safe (steel becomes fatigued from rolling during trans-ocean voyages). (Dodds)
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Though the steel becomes exhausted from extensive use during its lifetime, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle approximately 89% of ldt scrapped worldwide. (Dodds) Ship recycling costs are comparatively higher in the European Union (EU) and the United States of America (USA) than in Asia because of the strict regulations relating to environmental issues and [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|occupational safety]] and health issues. Thus, ship-recycling facilities in the EU and the USA are not economically viable.<ref name="zoo">
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=='''Important Documents'''==
Greenpeace, the GMB union and Peter Mandelson, MP for Hartlepool, joined forces yesterday to urge the government to scrap all Britain's redundant warships at home instead of allowing the work to be done on beaches in south-east Asia. (Vidal)
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* [http://wiki.ban.org/images/4/44/Dishonorable_Disposal_BAN_Report.pdf Dishonorable Disposal - The Case Against Dumping U.S. Naval Vessels at Sea]
While recycling ships is an excellent way to reuse and save materials for future use, especially in developing countries, the toxic materials applied to the ships is extremely dangerous if not treated or handled safely. Specifically, [[Green Ships: Green Ships|Tributyltin (TBT)]] is a very toxic substance used in anti fouling paints which is applied to the hulls of ships. Use of anti fouling paints containing TBT has been banned since 2003.<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref> The harmful effects from TBT on environmental and marine life was widely known, but due to it's large economic benefits and early implementation into paints, many of the ships were already painted in TBT based anti fouling paints. In 2004, 70-80% of world’s fleet covered in TBT self polishing copolymer paints, which led to important economic benefits.<ref name="too"/> The ban on the use of TBT in 2003 did not take effect til much later and does not apply to all countries.
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Though, possible countries not regulated by national or regional legislation will continue to use organotin compounds, specifically in national routes.<ref name="too"/> TBT is largely settled into the sediment when it is anchored or beached. In most cases, ports and shipyards are near urban areas and presence disturbs activities such as recreation and fishing.<ref name="too"/>
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=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==
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Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).
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===Beach Shipbreaking===
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Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>
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===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
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A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].
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===Slipway Shipbreaking===
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===Alongside Shipbreaking===
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=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
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The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>
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In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs.  In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.
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== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
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:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].
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Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.
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=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
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While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>
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Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>
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=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==
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Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>
  
== '''Transport of Toxins''' ==
 
 
=== TBT===  
 
=== TBT===  
Tributlytin is a an organotin compound, one of most hazardous in marine environment with tin is basic substance in TBT. <ref name="foo">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref> The implementation of TBT in anti-fouling paints was introduced in the 1950's. Tin, basic substance of TBT, is effective longer periods than copper which was normal additive at the time, but more poisonous and made it possible to postpone the need to repaint.<ref name="foo"/> TBT was used on ship hulls to prevent attachment of marine organisms to hulls, “fouling.<ref name="foo"/> The TBT based anti fouling paints proved to be very effective in preventing organisms from attaching to the hull of the ships. More importantly, these organisms were poisoned once attached to the hull and proceed to detach from the hull and become vulnerable once back in the body of water. Tributyltin is extremely stable and resistant to natural degradation in water, making TBT very toxic to adequate environments (Dodds). The marine life that becomes attached to the ships or becomes sustenance to other marine life face severe physiological effects. An endocrine disrupting chemical causing severe reproductive defects in aquatic organisms (tightly regulated in developed nations) (Dodds). TBT is very dangerous for many types of marine life. TBT compounds most toxic for Gram-positive bacteria, fish algae, mussels, mollusks and fungi.<ref name="too"/> The contaminated marine life that is detached from the ship's hull not only becomes nourishment for other sea animals, but for humans as well causing adverse health effects. Consumption of contaminated seafood by humans can cause severe skin and mucous membranes irritation.<ref name="too"/> The ship's hull is rubbed against the sediment most when it is closer to shore and anchored. Most severely contaminated sites were commercial harbours and shipyards.<ref name="evans">Evans, S.M., N. Barnes, A. C. Birchenough , M. S. Brancato & E. Hardman. (2001). Tributyltin contamination in two estuaries and adjacent ocean coasts: Puget Sound, Washington, and Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island (USA). ''Invertebrate Reproduction & Development,'' 39(3), 221-229. DOI:10.1080/07924259.2001.9652486</ref> In a study conducted in the Puget Sound in Washington state, there were many high levels of TBT and contaminated marine life discovered. The worst contamination was at Anacortes shipyard and at site 1.3 km from it.<ref name="evans"/> Many mollusks were found to have been physically altered due to the high level of TBT in the sediment. High imposex scores from shores close to Port of Seattle, which has complex shipyards and harbors.<ref name="evans"/> Though the Port of Seattle has multiple shipyards and harbors, many other harbors were also found to have TBT contaminated sediment. Chemical and biological measures were at background levels within less than 2 km from shipyard in Anacortes and less than 8km from Port of Seattle.<ref name="evans"/> Though many countries have banned the use of TBT due to its dangerous effects on environmental and aquatic life, many countries [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|lack strict or clear guidelines]] on the restriction or use of TBT. Increased recognition of problems with TBT, several countries in mid 1980’s implemented national legislation with specific intentions of limiting use of TBT.<ref name="foo"/> Though there was no required restrictions for banning TBT, fortunately, some countries took it upon themselves to apply their own set of guidelines. As concentration of TBT in water and sediment remained alarmingly high, mainly from pollution from ships flying non-Japanese flags, Japan actively imposed an international ban on TBT antifouling.<ref name="foo"/> After 1988, state action was unnecessary to prohibit the use of TBT, which most likely accounts for the lack of TBT-specific legislation in the other states. Furthermore, because antifouling paints are generally considered pesticides subject to regulation under a state’s generic pesticide laws, specific legislation banning TBT may be considered redundant in some states.<ref name="foo"/> Though TBT paints more expensive, economic effects and arguments did not stop the quick change.<ref name="foo"/>
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Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>  
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TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>
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Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>
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The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>
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While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned.  Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>
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At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>
  
 
=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===  
 
=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===  
Ships are composed of many different components, many of which are covered in toxic substances that are dangerous to human health when they are in use and more so when they are removed as the toxic substances are being displaced. PCB’s can be found in electrical components, cables, vent ducts, misc. gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components. (Dodds). It is imperative PCB's be handled appropriately and safely to ensure environmental and human safety. Exposure to PCB’s creates significant risk of developing various cancers, affect immune, reproductive, nervous, and endocrine systems. (Dodds). Like TBT, PCB's adversely affect human health through the exposure of the substance as well as ingestion of contaminated marine life. Most carciogenic PCB’s tend to build up in flesh of fish and other animals, those who eating contaminated fish face even greater health threat than shipwrecking industry workers. (Dodds).To protect environment, PCB’s must be properly incinerated or stored in special landfills where they will not leach into groundwater. (Dodds). Like many other toxic substances used, it seems the easy solution is to discontinue the use, however, the necessity for PCB's is needed until an alternative substance can be found. PCB’s used for high heat resistance, inflammability, chemical stability, and high boiling point. (Dodds).
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Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>
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Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>
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PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>
  
 
=== Lead ===  
 
=== Lead ===  
Lead has been known and proven to cause severely dangerous effects on humans. In knowing the extremely harmful effects lead has on humans, it is continued to be used on parts commonly used in vessels. Lead is found in batteries, paints, and components of motors, generators, piping, and cables (Dodds). Lead has many similar and different detrimental effets on children and adults. Health effects of lead exposure in children cause: learning difficulties, mental retardation, delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination. (Dodds).
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Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>
  
 
=== Bilge Water ===  
 
=== Bilge Water ===  
Bilge water is an oily waste which is an accumulation of potentially polluting liquids in lowest part of ships hull. During the mothballing or dismantling process, bilge water increases because of accumulated rainwater, cooling water, and containment water and used during ship breaking process. (Dodds). Bilge water contains a mixture of toxic substances that are applied to the ship and it's components. Bilge water contains oil, cargo residues, inorganix salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury (often spilt into ocean during shipwrecking process). Oil and other wastes threaten overall health and survival or many species and organisms, some of which are endangered.(Dodds)
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Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>
  
 
=== Asbestos ===  
 
=== Asbestos ===  
Asbestos is another serious mineral that threatens human health when inhaled. Asbestos can be found in ship insulation, asbestos fibers pose serious health risk (cancers and lung diseases) to workers who inhale the fibers.(Dodds) Asbestos only known cause of mesothelioma which is cancer of lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen. (Dodds)
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Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.<ref name="chang"/>
 
 
== '''Occupational'''==
 
Many of the ship-breaking facilities are located in developing countries, though unfortunately, many of the ship-breaking sites are more concerned with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.<ref name="zoo">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> Ship-breaking is a very dangerous process which entails exposure to harmful toxins, heavy, falling parts, and requires precaution using difficult tools. Ship recycling workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as: helmets, masks, goggles, and no signs of danger.<ref name="zoo"> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no required training or supplied training to educate the workers of the potential harms involved with the ship-breaking operation. Majority of workers have no training with blowtorches or with hazardous substances involved in ship recycling. <ref name="zoo"> Moreover, the risk for inhaling noxious substances continues through the ship-breaking process and after when the parts are displaced. Toxic fumes released during blowtorch cutting process and afterwards paint and coatins continue to smolder.<ref name="zoo"> Unfortunately, there is no structured training or protective equipment given to the ship breaking workers in these developing countries such as the ship breaking site in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]], for that reason it is not uncommon for them to suffer from major accidents. The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].
 
  
== '''Environmental'''==
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== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
Many ships are covered in hazardous substances that endanger the environment. Carcinogenic and toxic substances such as Polychlorinated Biphenyls ("PCBs"), asbestos, tributanlytin ("TBT"), lead, oil, and polluted ship water are released directly into the ocean. (Dodds). Though the use of TBT base anti-fouling paints have long been banned, the lingering effects of TBT are vry dangerous. Sediment contamination still in effect and endangers marine and estuarine quality of environment.<ref name="too"/> Many studies have discovered an existence of TBT in commonly used waterways and a large presence of TBT in the sediment near ports. Typically, navigation channels show low levels of TBT compared to sediments in harbor locations, specifically close to dockyards.<ref name="too"/> The use of TBT was to discourage the adhesion of marine life to the ship's hull, suggestively to preserve the lifetime of the marine organisms. Marine biofouling defined as undesirable accumulation of marine organisms on solid surfaces, i.e. ships hull or mechanical equipment, immersed in seawater.<ref name="too"/> No matter the reasoning behind the application of TBT, the lasting effects, regardless of how minimal, are gravely destructive to the environment. Extremely low concentrations of TBT still greatly affect marine organisms.<ref name="too"/>
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''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Shipbreaking Regulations''']]
1ng of TBT cause imposex and intersex on snails.<ref name="too"/> In order to control the exposure of TBT within the sediment and during the ship-breaking process, many different environmentally safe processes will need to be invoked.
 
In ports, TBT is released to marine environment via ship hulls and only measure to prevent is replace with environmental friendly antifouling systems.<ref name="too"/>
 
Although, little or no reduction of TBT concentrations were seen in sediments even after several years after TBT prohibition.<ref name="too"/>
 
  
== '''Ship breaking Regulations''' ==
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== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
[[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|Conventions of Interest Subpage -->]]
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''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Shipbreaking Countries''']]
  
<ref>Plunkett, John. "Sorrell accuses Murdoch of panic buying", ''[[The Guardian]]'', London, 27 October 2005.</ref>
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== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
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''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]
  
 
=='''References'''==
 
=='''References'''==
 
<references/>
 
<references/>

Latest revision as of 14:14, 22 September 2020

Overview

Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."[1] This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.[2] It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.[3] While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

Important Documents

Shipbreaking Methods

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.[3] Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

Beach Shipbreaking

Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.[4] Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see Occupational Hazards and Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.[1]

Dry-Dock Shipbreaking

A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.[4] Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.[1] Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see Green Ships: Alternative Solutions.

Slipway Shipbreaking

Alongside Shipbreaking

Benefits of Shipbreaking

The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.[4] Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.[1] Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.[4]

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.[4] Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on occupational hazards for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

Occupational Hazards

For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries.

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.[2] Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.[2] Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.[5] Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”[2] Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.[4] Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.[4] In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.[5] In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.[2] Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.[2] Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.[3] In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.[4] The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.[5] Click here for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

Environmental Impacts

While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.[5]

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.[5]

Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.[1] Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.[3]

TBT

Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.[6]

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).[6]It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.[7]Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.[6]

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.[3]More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT[8], but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.[5]

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.[9]

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.[9]

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.[9]

Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB)

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”[1]that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”[1]Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, [10]PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.[1]

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”[10]As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.[1]

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.[4] Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the International Toxics Progress Report Card) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.[1]

Lead

Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."[1]When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."[1]

Bilge Water

Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”[1] The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.[1]

Asbestos

Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."[1] Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.[1] In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.[4]In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.[2]

Ship Breaking Regulations

Further information: Current Shipbreaking Regulations

Green Ship Countries

Further information: Shipbreaking Countries

Alternative Solutions

Further information: Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options

References

  1. 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. 20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207, 208-236.
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60, 1390-1396.
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S86-S95.
  7. Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.
  8. Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1), 21-29.
  9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.
  10. 10.0 10.1 EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.