Basel Action Network Wiki - User contributions [en]

Green Ships: Alternative Solutions

2015-09-04T05:48:08Z

Beckerr: /* Further Information on Green Ships */

=='''Alternatives to Beach Shipbreaking'''==

=== '''Mothballing''' ===
Mothballing, a potential alternative to ship-breaking, is the practice of indefinitely storing a partially or fully decommissioned ship. The vessels are fully equipped for service, but are not currently needed. A negative aspect of mothballing is the expense required for ship upkeep. Likewise, the mothballing process may cause forms of environmental harm.<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>

=='''Improvements to the Shipbreaking Process'''==

=== '''Dry Docking''' ===
'''update information'''
The preferred alternative to beach ship-recycling is dry docking. Dry docking is closely related to mothballing in terms of process, potential environmental harm, and high cost (up to $800,000 per vessel).<ref name="dodds"/> Ships are dry docked in shipyards and harbors; these locations demand high quality waste management due to the particularly high risk associated with polluting water bodies in these places.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S86-S95.</ref> The decommissioned ships can also be sunk to form artificial reefs, although this option is costly due to the need for the removal of "all environmental hazards...prior to sinking."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Toxic Sediments Relocation''' ===
Removing and relocating toxic sediment from ships offers an alternate step in the ship-wrecking process.<ref name="stichnothe">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5''(1), 21-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/jss2005.01.128</ref> Unfortunately, this process proves difficult on two fronts. First, finding a way to collect the sediment and a site in which to deposit it pose a challenge. A second dilemma comes with finding a way to decompose the sediment in an environmentally safe manner.

=== '''Electrochemical Removal of Tributyltin''' ===
A recently explored alternative step in ship-recycling is an electrochemical process that attempts to decompose tributyltin ([http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships#TBT TBT]).<ref name="stichnothe"/> Rather than risk removing the sediment and possibly contaminating the site at which it is stored, the electrochemical process seeks to eliminate the toxins right away.

=== '''Paint Scraping''' ===
In response to bans on TBT, recyclers tried scraping paint from the hulls of ships to remove the toxic TBT-based anti-fouling paint. Unfortunately, this proved to be a dangerous solution. The "washing, scraping, and repainting of boat hulls" jeopardized the health of shipyard workers.<ref name="gipperth"/> Furthermore, the paint dust that entered the air as a result of scraping could easily find its way into the marine environment.

=== '''Alternate Paints''' ===
Over time, ship manufacturers have experimented with a variety of paints as a replacement for TBT-based anti-fouling paints. Unfortunately, the biocides in alternative paints are not as effective as TBT, and using other compounds or metals can be costly. In the end, these alternative paints are more expensive, shorter-lasting, and less effective than their TBT-based predecessors. Consequently, ships painted with alternative paints need more frequent repainting and hull cleanings; fuel consumption may increase, and "trading revenue [suffers] while ships are dry-docked."<ref name="gipperth"/>

Ideally, an effective alternative paint could successfully break into the ship paint market - regardless of its initial cost. Providing precedent, TBT paints were actually very expensive when they first entered the market and became immediately popular. Their great effectiveness at keeping ship hulls devoid of organisms allowed ships to move faster, and in turn, to dump less fuel. This example offers hope that another kind of paint could experience similar success.<ref name="gipperth"/>

=='''References'''==
<references/>

=='''Further Information on Green Ships'''==

*[[Green Ships|'''Green Ships Main Page''']]

*[[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|Shipbreaking Regulations]]

*[[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|Shipbreaking Countries]]

Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations

2015-09-04T05:47:28Z

Beckerr: /* Further Information on Green Ships */

== '''Hong Kong Convention''' ==
=== '''Summary''' ===
The Hong Kong International Convention for Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships is the most recent legislation that oversees the creation of clearer, stricter guidelines for occupational and environmental safety in ship recycling. It attempts to improve on the much older Basel Convention, and "it applies to ships entitled to fly the flag of a Party" or to ships and ship-recyling facilities operating under Party jurisdiction.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> "Adopted under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in May of 2009 after more than five years of negotiations, the Hong Kong Convention is expected to enter into force in 2015." "The aim of the Convention is to provide regulations on the design, construction, preparation, and operation of ships in order to facilitate safe and environmentally sound recycling." "The Convention requires all vessels to carry detailed, regularly updated inventories" of their hazardous materials. Unfortunately for the environment, the original conditions of the Hong Kong convention were vague enough that many countries were able to sidestep the safety guidelines.<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

=== '''Strengths''' ===
Although the Hong Kong Convention has come under scrutiny in some respects, it does successfully serve some functions. "The Convention requires all vessels to carry detailed, regularly updated inventories" of the ship’s hazardous materials. In order to ensure compliance with this policy and close potential loopholes, the ships must be surveyed throughout their lifetimes to verify the inventories of hazardous materials. Ships must undergo an initial survey, surveys throughout their useful lives, "and a final survey prior to recycling."<ref name="alam"/>

"The Hong Kong Convention tries to regulate all aspects of a ship's life (described by Bhattacharjee as ‘the cradle-to-grave-approach')." Many conventions were developed with a tertiary prevention approach to ship recycling, protecting the environment and its workers. Few conventions, however, have turned their efforts to primary and secondary prevention methods. Unlike the Basel Convention and other international treaties, the Hong Kong Convention addresses the crucial issue of ‘green ship building and design’.<ref name="alam"/> The Convention also takes special care to address the environmental and occupational dangers associated with the ship-recycling industry.<ref name="chang"/> Ship recycling yards must be authorized, and every ship in the recycling yard must have a ‘Ship Recycling Plan.’<ref name="alam"/> '''???'''Other conventions allow leniency to visiting ships operating through other parties, enabling them to slip through the cracks through other countries not operating or operating under less restricted policies.<ref name="chang"/>

=== '''Weaknesses''' ===
Although the Hong Kong Convention is an update to the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention has several key faults. First, it lacks instruction on the methods that should guide ship recycling and on the ‘final management of waste.’<ref name="alam"/> The convention does not force shipbreaking countries or ship owners to improve present conditions, and it "fails to demand the decontamination of ships within developed countries prior to their exportation."<ref name="alam"/> Arguably, even the mention of ship recycling in the convention is a substantial improvement on the Basel Convention. Nevertheless, ‘the 2009 Hong Kong Convention itself does not introduce a compulsory and environmentally sound ship recycling method.’<ref name="alam"/> In fact, "the Convention does not entirely ban the practice of dismantling ships on beaches."

Another drawback of the Hong Kong Convention is that it does not account for all vessels. Among the excluded ships are ‘warships, naval auxiliary ships or other ships owned or operated by a Party and used only on governmental, non-commercial service.’<ref name="alam"/>

The Hong Kong Convention’s focus on primary prevention is extraordinarily beneficial in many ways, but the vast majority of ships currently in use should also be addressed as their average lifetime of 20 years is a lengthy amount of time to go ignored and harm workers and the environment.'''???'''
Another potential flaw of the Hong Kong Convention is that much of the responsibility for managing ship toxins lies with recyclers – often the recyclers in poor countries who do not have the tools and capital to renovate and modernize their ship-breaking operations.<ref name="alam"/>

The principal challenge of the Hong Kong Convention is enforcing it. Bangladesh and other developing countries did not recognize ship breaking as a legitimate industry until recently. Thus, ratifying the Hong Kong convention proved problematic. The Convention required ‘the signatures of the five main ship recycling States: Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan and Turkey.<ref name="alam"/> '''Update information'''

== '''AFS Convention''' ==
=== '''Summary''' ===
In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) created the Anti-Fouling Systems (AFS) Convention in response to the harmful effects of anti-fouling systems. In September of 2007, Panama became the 25th and final state (out of 166 IMO member countries) to ratify the convention. The AFS Convention "entered into force and became binding" for the 25 participating states (representing 38.09% of the world’s merchant shipping tonnage - 25% was required) in September of 2008.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S86-S95.</ref> One major asset of the AFS Convention is the sheer number of shipping countries that signed it.

=== '''Strengths''' ===
The IMO adopted the AFS Convention to address the harmful effects of anti-fouling systems, and in particular to halt the use of paints containing toxic substances such as TBT. The AFS Convention prohibited all use of TBT-based anti-fouling paints in 2008.<ref name="stichnothe">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5''(1), 21-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/jss2005.01.128</ref>

=== '''Weaknesses''' ===
The prohibition of TBT-based paints in 2008 led ship owners to push for the quick removal of TBT-based paints. Unfortunately, this encouraged unsafe paint removal methods such as ship scraping that resulted in increased toxic waste in shipyards.<ref name="stichnothe"/>. This waste may harm marine life as well as ship workers who inhale paint particles.

== '''European Commission''' ==
=== '''Summary''' ===
The European Commission (EC) as a whole works to create legislation in accordance with European Union (EU) treaties. "In March of 2012, the EC adopted a proposal for new regulation on ship recycling." The proposal, which was called the EU Ship Recycling Regulation, was approved by the European Parliament in April, 2013. The EC's newly implemented regulation operated under the governing Hong Kong Convention. It also invoked elements of the Basel Convention and aimed to implement an amendment to the Basel Convention (the ‘Ban Amendment’), which had not yet "entered into force." The legislation’s principal requirement was that "European ships be dismantled in safe and environmentally sound facilities." The EU has accepted responsibility, primarily that the Hong Kong Convention has forced countries to accept, for their flagged ships and reducing the negative impacts associated with ship-recycling without creating irrelevant economic burdens. According to the policy, all waste destined for disposal (including end-of-life ships and vessels) would be subject to the requirement of prior notification.<ref name="alam"/> <-seems like a direct quote

=== '''Strengths''' ===
With the EU Ship Recycling Regulation in place, the European Union must take responsibility for its vessels and reduce its exports of toxic waste. Furthermore, European ships may only be recycled in facilities that are on a list of registered European recycling facilities. Recyclers must "apply for inclusion on this list with evidence that they meet the stipulated requirements."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Weaknesses''' ===
== '''Basel Convention''' ==
=== '''Summary''' ===
The Basel Convention was a groundbreaking early international agreement established to prohibit the transport of toxic waste for disposal, and to protect human health and the environment from toxins. It remains the principal international legal instrument of regulation on the shipbreaking industry. The main purpose of the Basel Convention is to ensure that parties take responsibility for their own hazardous waste, establish hazardous waste disposal facilities within their territory (including recycling facilities), minimize the generation and trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste, and ensure that exported waste does not harm the human and environmental health of other countries. The convention calls for ‘environmentally sound management,’ "which means taking all practicable steps to ensure protection of human health and the environment."<ref name="alam"/>
Many more recent policies stem from the Basel Convention. For example, the European Waste Shipment Regulation 259/93/EEC, a policy based largely on the Basel Convention, determines how waste must be handled before it can move "within, into, or out of" Europe.<ref name="alam"/>
Unfortunately, one powerful country that played a key role in drafting the Basel Convention did not ultimately ratify it – the United States. In doing so, the U.S. joined Haiti and Afghanistan as the only agreement signatories that failed to ratify the treaty.
Despite the strict guidelines set out by the Basel Convention to discourage the transport of toxic waste, many ship owners continue to export their old ships. In most cases, "ships exported for shipbreaking are a clear violation of the [Basel Convention] objectives."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Strengths''' ===
The Basel Convention laid the groundwork for the future of toxic waste regulation. "It obligates parties", regardless "of their status (e.g., state of export, import, transit, flag or port state), to prohibit" "the export of hazardous and other wastes to parties" that "have prohibited the import of such wastes." Furthermore, "it defines “illegal traffic” of hazardous wastes and makes it a criminal act." The prohibition on the transportation of hazardous waste is clear and indisputable. "The Basel Convention's 7th Conference of Parties recognized that end-of-life vessels containing PCBs, asbestos, heavy metals and other hazardous substances should be legally defined as hazardous wastes" by "international law."<ref name="alam"/>

The Basel Ban Amendment, a new addition to the Basel Convention, "prohibits all hazardous wastes from being transported from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations to non-OECD nations." The OECD, which comprises 34 countries and was founded in 1961, "established a total ban on exports of hazardous wastes from OECD and EC countries to developing countries." This fulfills the requirements of the "convention, namely, “to prevent the developed nations from ‘dumping’ on the developing nations.”"<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Weaknesses''' ===
Although the Basel Convention has many strengths, it also contains a few unclear policies. "Articles. 4.1 and 6 of the Basel Convention stipulate that no shipment of waste should take place without all “States Concerned” being informed and consented."<ref name="alam"/> "This requirement can be circumvented by unscrupulous waste ship traders who declare a ship to be waste only after it is in international waters or already at the shipbreaking state."<ref name="alam"/> "The “prior informed consent” (PIC) mechanism requires that the state of export inform an importing state of any transfer, detailing accurately the nature and volume of the waste and receiving written consent from the state of import."<ref name="alam"/> In many cases, exporting parties "misrepresent the nature of the waste involved." "In the case of the Abidjan disaster, the waste concerned was described as ‘routine slops,’ the dirty water from washing naval tanks. In fact, it contained a mixture of fuels, caustic soda and over two tonnes of hydrogen sulphide." This lack of honesty "has meant that importing states have difficulty ascertaining whether the information provided is indeed correct."<ref name="alam"/>

"The difficulties are further exacerbated by the fact that the Convention offers no explanation of ‘environmentally sound management’ beyond, ‘taking all practicable steps to ensure that hazardous wastes or other wastes are managed in a manner which will protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects which may result from such wastes’." '''53''' The exact requirements are then "subject to interpretation and conjecture."<ref name="alam"/> "This limitation has resulted in what is termed the ‘recycling loophole.’" '''59''' Some groups claim that waste transfers claimed to be for reuse or reclamation are actually intended for ‘sham recycling’ (dumping) or ‘dirty recycling,’ (recycling that harms health and the environment).<ref name="alam"/>

Another problem lies with the Basel Ban Amendment, which has had a low rate of participation in its ratification and which has not entered into force yet.<ref name="alam"/>

There are several other instances of vague or missing language. First, the convention has "no direct legal ban on the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes from developed to developing countries."<ref name="alam"/> Furthermore, the convention does not offer a clear definition of ‘hazardous waste’ and does not provide a clear process for deciding whether a substance counts as hazardous. Currently, importing states must decide whether to trust the information provided by ship owners.<ref name="alam"/> The Basel Convention also "failed to create a fund to minimize the damage from international hazardous wastes," "prohibit transfer of hazardous waste but rather facilitated movement to countries with developing economies."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. 20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207, 208-236.</ref><-''indirect quote'' The Basel Convention also "totally exempts bilateral and multilateral agreements between nonparty countries" (i.e. nonmember countries, the United States) and member countries (e.g. India) "to enter into contracts for disposal of waste."<ref name="dodds"/> Finally, the 1989 Basel Convention does not provide complete guidelines for all possible "risks and problems" that might arise from a ship recycling facility; "it does not provide detailed [requirements] for the recycling process."<ref name="chang"/> "Consequently, the IMO decided to add ship recycling and its environmental impact to its agenda."<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Miscellaneous Conventions''' ==
The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention pertained to states’ land-based environmental pollution of the sea. According to Article 192, ‘states have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment.’ Furthermore, states shall, according to Article 194 ‘take […] measures […] to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment.’ Bangladesh ratified this Convention in 2001.

The Stockholm Convention can be relevant when considering Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) such as PCBs; a pervasive substance in many ships
International Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling Systems on Ships 2001. It prohibits the use of anti-fouling systems that burdens the environment. Anti-fouling systems that use organotin compounds have to have an additional layer as a barrier to prevent the harmful substances from being released to the environment.
substandard beaching yards the anti-fouling paint usually does not get removed professionally, but simply gets scaped off and released to the environment.
damaging not only to the workers, but also to the coastal ecosystem.
The requirement of over-coating worsens the problem because it makes it more difficult to remove the harmful bottom layer of paint.
IMO dedicated legislator of global shipping industry since maritime catastrophes in 1960’s.<ref name="chang"/>
"In addition, joint efforts with the IMO, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Conference of Parties to the 1989 Basel Convention were also made to establish a Joint Working Group on Ship Scrapping."<ref name="chang"/>
"Since decision making process within IMO (International Maritime Organization) is base on principle of state sovereignty, state members are free to enter any IMO Convention."<ref name="gipperth"/>

== '''Green Ship Countries'''==
[[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|Green Ship Countries]]

== '''References'''==
<references/>

=='''Further Information on Green Ships'''==

*[[Green Ships|'''Green Ships Main Page''']]

*[[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternatives to Traditional Shipbreaking Techniques]]

*[[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|Shipbreaking Countries]]

Green Ships

2015-09-04T05:44:42Z

Beckerr: /* Ship Breaking Regulations */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

===Slipway Shipbreaking===

===Alongside Shipbreaking===

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Shipbreaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Shipbreaking Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

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Beckerr: /* Green Ship Countries */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

===Slipway Shipbreaking===

===Alongside Shipbreaking===

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Shipbreaking Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations

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Green Ships: Alternative Solutions

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Beckerr:

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

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Beckerr: /* Links to Other Green Ships Pages */

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==

==='''Industry Overview'''===
Located in eastern China in the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Pearl Rivers, China’s shipbreaking industry ranks among the largest in the world. As with operations in Bangladesh, Chinese shipbreakers prefer the largest ships for dismantling.<ref name="galley"/> Although China only dismantled about 5% of the merchant ships recycled in 2006-2007, these ships totaled more than 50% of the total ship tonnage scrapped worldwide that year.<ref name="puthucherril2010">Puthucherril, T.G. (2010) From shipbreaking to sustainable ship recycling: evolution of a legal regime. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.</ref> The majority of its 90 yards are at Zhang Jiang in Jiangsu province, but yards also exist in Guangdong and Fujian provinces. New facilities for ship building, repair, and recycling are under construction in Dalian, a major port city in Liaoning Province. '''(the needed update of this information is on page 247 of Galley article)''' Shipbreaking in China takes place alongside quays, with a breaking process that employs many of the techniques used in shipbuilding. Ships remain in the water throughout breaking, and cranes lift away ship scrap metal.<ref name="galley"/>
The success of Chinese shipyards comes in large part from the huge demand for steel within the country. This demand made it more difficult for other ship breaking countries to hold onto their portion of the market. The operations at Alang, India were among those affected.<ref name="galley"/> The partly mechanized shipbreaking method used in China also gives it a leg up over the operations in India and Bangladesh that rely on entirely on manual labor.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
Chinese shipbreaking conditions tend to be better than those in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. This has occurred in large part due to pressure from Greenpeace on the companies that send their ships to China. As a result, ship-owning companies are taking a more active role in the shipbreaking process. The companies Hamburg Süd and P&O Nedlloyd (“later part of the Maersk group”<ref name="galley"/>) equipped workers with protective gear and safety training. Some European organizations now offer “a service to shipowners whereby their vessels can be demolished in specific Chinese yards under the supervision of inspectors with the powers to halt the process, should this be deemed not to be in accordance with predetermined standards.”<ref name="galley"/> Chinese shipbreaking operations tend to have fairly good housing and few accidents.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/> Greenpeace has reported, however, that workers still do not properly handle toxics like asbestos. Although the resale of asbestos is banned, it occurs often.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
Containment of toxins remains an issue with Chinese shipbreaking operations. Oil often spills into the water despite the use of oil booms. Asbestos disposal has been a repeated problem. Shipbreaking sites frequently stand right next to active farmland, creating the opening for migration of toxins into the food chain.<ref name="galley"/> However, shipbreaking is not allowed “in…[areas protected for] drinking water sources, [areas for] pumping salt water for desalting, salt-fields, important fishing areas, seaside resorts, scenic or historic sites, and other areas which need particular protection.”<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
['''Not yet edited or checked for direct quotes'''] Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''Other'''==
*Denmark: Fornæs yard in the port of Grena ̊
*Norway
*Poland
*Netherlands
*Lithuania
*Indonesia
*Philippines: West Cebu Island (1994)
<ref name="galley"/>

=='''References'''==
<references/>

=='''Further Information on Green Ships'''==

*[[Green Ships|'''Green Ships Main Page''']]

*[[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternatives to Traditional Shipbreaking Techniques]]

*[[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|Shipbreaking Regulations]]

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

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Beckerr:

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==

==='''Industry Overview'''===
Located in eastern China in the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Pearl Rivers, China’s shipbreaking industry ranks among the largest in the world. As with operations in Bangladesh, Chinese shipbreakers prefer the largest ships for dismantling.<ref name="galley"/> Although China only dismantled about 5% of the merchant ships recycled in 2006-2007, these ships totaled more than 50% of the total ship tonnage scrapped worldwide that year.<ref name="puthucherril2010">Puthucherril, T.G. (2010) From shipbreaking to sustainable ship recycling: evolution of a legal regime. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.</ref> The majority of its 90 yards are at Zhang Jiang in Jiangsu province, but yards also exist in Guangdong and Fujian provinces. New facilities for ship building, repair, and recycling are under construction in Dalian, a major port city in Liaoning Province. '''(the needed update of this information is on page 247 of Galley article)''' Shipbreaking in China takes place alongside quays, with a breaking process that employs many of the techniques used in shipbuilding. Ships remain in the water throughout breaking, and cranes lift away ship scrap metal.<ref name="galley"/>
The success of Chinese shipyards comes in large part from the huge demand for steel within the country. This demand made it more difficult for other ship breaking countries to hold onto their portion of the market. The operations at Alang, India were among those affected.<ref name="galley"/> The partly mechanized shipbreaking method used in China also gives it a leg up over the operations in India and Bangladesh that rely on entirely on manual labor.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
Chinese shipbreaking conditions tend to be better than those in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. This has occurred in large part due to pressure from Greenpeace on the companies that send their ships to China. As a result, ship-owning companies are taking a more active role in the shipbreaking process. The companies Hamburg Süd and P&O Nedlloyd (“later part of the Maersk group”<ref name="galley"/>) equipped workers with protective gear and safety training. Some European organizations now offer “a service to shipowners whereby their vessels can be demolished in specific Chinese yards under the supervision of inspectors with the powers to halt the process, should this be deemed not to be in accordance with predetermined standards.”<ref name="galley"/> Chinese shipbreaking operations tend to have fairly good housing and few accidents.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/> Greenpeace has reported, however, that workers still do not properly handle toxics like asbestos. Although the resale of asbestos is banned, it occurs often.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
Containment of toxins remains an issue with Chinese shipbreaking operations. Oil often spills into the water despite the use of oil booms. Asbestos disposal has been a repeated problem. Shipbreaking sites frequently stand right next to active farmland, creating the opening for migration of toxins into the food chain.<ref name="galley"/> However, shipbreaking is not allowed “in…[areas protected for] drinking water sources, [areas for] pumping salt water for desalting, salt-fields, important fishing areas, seaside resorts, scenic or historic sites, and other areas which need particular protection.”<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
['''Not yet edited or checked for direct quotes'''] Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''Other'''==
*Denmark: Fornæs yard in the port of Grena ̊
*Norway
*Poland
*Netherlands
*Lithuania
*Indonesia
*Philippines: West Cebu Island (1994)
<ref name="galley"/>

=='''References'''==
<references/>

=='''Links to Other Green Ships Pages'''==

*[[Green Ships|'''Green Ships Main Page''']]

*[[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternatives to Traditional Shipbreaking Techniques]]

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-09-04T05:32:02Z

Beckerr: /* Regulatory Status */

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==

==='''Industry Overview'''===
Located in eastern China in the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Pearl Rivers, China’s shipbreaking industry ranks among the largest in the world. As with operations in Bangladesh, Chinese shipbreakers prefer the largest ships for dismantling.<ref name="galley"/> Although China only dismantled about 5% of the merchant ships recycled in 2006-2007, these ships totaled more than 50% of the total ship tonnage scrapped worldwide that year.<ref name="puthucherril2010">Puthucherril, T.G. (2010) From shipbreaking to sustainable ship recycling: evolution of a legal regime. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.</ref> The majority of its 90 yards are at Zhang Jiang in Jiangsu province, but yards also exist in Guangdong and Fujian provinces. New facilities for ship building, repair, and recycling are under construction in Dalian, a major port city in Liaoning Province. '''(the needed update of this information is on page 247 of Galley article)''' Shipbreaking in China takes place alongside quays, with a breaking process that employs many of the techniques used in shipbuilding. Ships remain in the water throughout breaking, and cranes lift away ship scrap metal.<ref name="galley"/>
The success of Chinese shipyards comes in large part from the huge demand for steel within the country. This demand made it more difficult for other ship breaking countries to hold onto their portion of the market. The operations at Alang, India were among those affected.<ref name="galley"/> The partly mechanized shipbreaking method used in China also gives it a leg up over the operations in India and Bangladesh that rely on entirely on manual labor.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
Chinese shipbreaking conditions tend to be better than those in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. This has occurred in large part due to pressure from Greenpeace on the companies that send their ships to China. As a result, ship-owning companies are taking a more active role in the shipbreaking process. The companies Hamburg Süd and P&O Nedlloyd (“later part of the Maersk group”<ref name="galley"/>) equipped workers with protective gear and safety training. Some European organizations now offer “a service to shipowners whereby their vessels can be demolished in specific Chinese yards under the supervision of inspectors with the powers to halt the process, should this be deemed not to be in accordance with predetermined standards.”<ref name="galley"/> Chinese shipbreaking operations tend to have fairly good housing and few accidents.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/> Greenpeace has reported, however, that workers still do not properly handle toxics like asbestos. Although the resale of asbestos is banned, it occurs often.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
Containment of toxins remains an issue with Chinese shipbreaking operations. Oil often spills into the water despite the use of oil booms. Asbestos disposal has been a repeated problem. Shipbreaking sites frequently stand right next to active farmland, creating the opening for migration of toxins into the food chain.<ref name="galley"/> However, shipbreaking is not allowed “in…[areas protected for] drinking water sources, [areas for] pumping salt water for desalting, salt-fields, important fishing areas, seaside resorts, scenic or historic sites, and other areas which need particular protection.”<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
['''Not yet edited or checked for direct quotes'''] Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''Other'''==
*Denmark: Fornæs yard in the port of Grena ̊
*Norway
*Poland
*Netherlands
*Lithuania
*Indonesia
*Philippines: West Cebu Island (1994)
<ref name="galley"/>

=='''References'''==
<references/>

''Previous page:'' [[Green Ships]]

''Next page:'' [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternative Solutions]]

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-09-04T05:31:25Z

Beckerr: /* China */

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==

==='''Industry Overview'''===
Located in eastern China in the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Pearl Rivers, China’s shipbreaking industry ranks among the largest in the world. As with operations in Bangladesh, Chinese shipbreakers prefer the largest ships for dismantling.<ref name="galley"/> Although China only dismantled about 5% of the merchant ships recycled in 2006-2007, these ships totaled more than 50% of the total ship tonnage scrapped worldwide that year.<ref name="puthucherril2010">Puthucherril, T.G. (2010) From shipbreaking to sustainable ship recycling: evolution of a legal regime. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.</ref> The majority of its 90 yards are at Zhang Jiang in Jiangsu province, but yards also exist in Guangdong and Fujian provinces. New facilities for ship building, repair, and recycling are under construction in Dalian, a major port city in Liaoning Province. '''(the needed update of this information is on page 247 of Galley article)''' Shipbreaking in China takes place alongside quays, with a breaking process that employs many of the techniques used in shipbuilding. Ships remain in the water throughout breaking, and cranes lift away ship scrap metal.<ref name="galley"/>
The success of Chinese shipyards comes in large part from the huge demand for steel within the country. This demand made it more difficult for other ship breaking countries to hold onto their portion of the market. The operations at Alang, India were among those affected.<ref name="galley"/> The partly mechanized shipbreaking method used in China also gives it a leg up over the operations in India and Bangladesh that rely on entirely on manual labor.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
Chinese shipbreaking conditions tend to be better than those in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. This has occurred in large part due to pressure from Greenpeace on the companies that send their ships to China. As a result, ship-owning companies are taking a more active role in the shipbreaking process. The companies Hamburg Süd and P&O Nedlloyd (“later part of the Maersk group”<ref name="galley"/>) equipped workers with protective gear and safety training. Some European organizations now offer “a service to shipowners whereby their vessels can be demolished in specific Chinese yards under the supervision of inspectors with the powers to halt the process, should this be deemed not to be in accordance with predetermined standards.”<ref name="galley"/> Chinese shipbreaking operations tend to have fairly good housing and few accidents.<ref name="puthucherril2010"/> Greenpeace has reported, however, that workers still do not properly handle toxics like asbestos. Although the resale of asbestos is banned, it occurs often.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
Containment of toxins remains an issue with Chinese shipbreaking operations. Oil often spills into the water despite the use of oil booms. Asbestos disposal has been a repeated problem. Shipbreaking sites frequently stand right next to active farmland, creating the opening for migration of toxins into the food chain.<ref name="galley"/> However, shipbreaking is not allowed “in…[areas protected for] drinking water sources, [areas for] pumping salt water for desalting, salt-fields, important fishing areas, seaside resorts, scenic or historic sites, and other areas which need particular protection.”<ref name="puthucherril2010"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
['''Not yet checked for direct quotes'''] Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''Other'''==
*Denmark: Fornæs yard in the port of Grena ̊
*Norway
*Poland
*Netherlands
*Lithuania
*Indonesia
*Philippines: West Cebu Island (1994)
<ref name="galley"/>

=='''References'''==
<references/>

''Previous page:'' [[Green Ships]]

''Next page:'' [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternative Solutions]]

Green Ships

2015-09-01T21:27:03Z

Beckerr:

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

===Slipway Shipbreaking===

===Alongside Shipbreaking===

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-09-01T21:26:39Z

Beckerr: /* Shipbreaking Methods */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

==Slipway Shipbreaking==

==Alongside Shipbreaking==

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-09-01T07:25:08Z

Beckerr:

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''Other'''==
*Denmark: Fornæs yard in the port of Grena ̊
*Norway
*Poland
*Netherlands
*Lithuania
*Indonesia
*Philippines: West Cebu Island (1994)
<ref name="galley"/>

=='''References'''==
<references/>

''Previous page:'' [[Green Ships]]

''Next page:'' [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternative Solutions]]

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-09-01T07:06:02Z

Beckerr: /* Pakistan */

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''References'''==
<references/>

''Previous page:'' [[Green Ships]]

''Next page:'' [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternative Solutions]]

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-09-01T07:04:51Z

Beckerr: /* Pakistan */

== '''India''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
India is the world leader in shipwrecking by volume, "particularly in the State of Gujarat along the beaches of Alang."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> With these operations, however, comes the risk of increased environmental toxins and decreased occupational safety.

Alang is a popular ship-beaching location for several reasons. Located on the Indian Ocean close to major trade routes, it offers minimum transport distances. Other draws include insufficient or unenforced [[Green Ships: Ship Breaking Regulations|legislative frameworks]], a ready-made market for old ship components ("pumps, generators, compressors, motors"), refurbished and applied in "emerging industrialized economies, conveniently large intertidal zones in which high tides allow vessels to beach under their own power," and low labor costs. <ref name="dodds"/>

Due to the need for cheap labor and the lack of legislative guidelines, ship-breaking workers in Alang face extreme occupational dangers. They find themselves exposed to substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, and residual oil, as well as to explosions and falling steel. <ref name="Puthucherril">Puthucherril, T.G. (2008). ''Rest in Peace: From Shipbreaking to Sustainable Ship Recycling.'' (Thesis). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.</ref> "There is no systematic training for the workforce, and injuries and fatalities are common." In many cases, accidents kill several workers; "it is unfortunately common for up to 15 men to die at once."<ref name="dodds"/> Not only do ship toxins endanger workers on the job, but they also cause problems upon reuse. "Most shipwrecking workers in southwest Asia live in shanties made of recycled ship steel, the housing and sanitary conditions worsened by transient nature."<ref name="dodds"/>

With respect to environmental dangers, "reports from the beaches of Alang indicate that shipwrecking facilities are heavily contaminated with heavy metals, asbestos, and TBT."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''Bangladesh''' ==
=== '''Recycling Overview''' ===
Like India, Bangladesh performs a large percentage of the world’s ship recycling. "Since 1974, Bangladesh has had approximately 50 shipbreaking yards; altogether, these operations have dismantled about 52% of the end-of-life vessels in the world that weigh more than 200 dead weight tons." "These yards supply 25–30 per cent of Bangladesh’s total yearly demand for steel." "As of 2012, Bangladesh demolished one and a half million tons of steel, more than the country currently has the ability to buy on the international market."<ref name="alam">Alam, S., & A. Faruque. (2014). Legal regulation of the shipbreaking industry in Bangladesh: The international regulatory framework and domestic implementation challenges. ''Marine Policy, 47,'' 46-56.</ref>

==='''Environmental'''===
Bangladeshi legislation does little to protect the environment from the harms of ship breaking. It is unclear whether Bangladesh has chosen to endorse any of the protocol listed in the Basel Convention, the Hong Kong Convention, or many other smaller conventions. It has not ratified "Annexes I, II, IV and V of the MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Convention, which require the establishment of appropriate waste-reception facilities for the reception of ship-generated waste."<ref name="alam"/>

In order to remedy the environmental problems caused by ship-breaking, ship-recycling facilities must develop more environmentally-sound policies. Simultaneously, ship exporters must establish guidelines that encourage the safe processing of ships. EU Waste Shipment Regulation: "Since the EU is a major exporter of end-of-life ships to substandard “dismantling and recycling” facilities in South Asia, the European legislation concerning this topic is of crucial importance."<ref name="alam"/>

==='''Occupational'''===
Work in ship-wrecking is difficult and dangerous. In 2004, the International Labour Organization (ILO) put out guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey that labeled common ship-breaking work hazards as "likely to cause injuries, death, ill health, diseases and incidents among workers."<ref name="alam"/>

Due to the poor economy in parts of Bangladesh, many, if not all of the members of a given family may work in ship-recycling. Men and boys tend to work on ship-breaking, while women, girls, and young children tend to sort out the ship components that will be distributed for re-sale. Women may also filter asbestos into powder in workshops outside the shipbreaking yards.'''(FIDH, 2005)? - may be a direct quote'''<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA)'', Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

Many children discontinue their formal education to participate in the ship-breaking process – jeopardizing both their present health and their future ability to find less dangerous employment. In the ship-breaking area of Chittagong, 10.94% of laborers are children '''(Photo: Reichmann, 2005).'''<ref name="hossain"/> 46.42% of workers in ship-breaking yards cannot read or write, and 43.02% received education only up to the primary level. With limited education and inadequate training for the jobs they do have, ship-wrecking workers experience little job mobility. Furthermore, they generally do not have adequate information about their rights in the workplace. '''(YPSA, 2005)?'''.<ref name="hossain"/>

According to watchdog groups, national and international regulations do not sufficiently protect Bangladeshi ship-wrecking workers from dangerous and unfair work conditions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency that comprises 171 states including Bangladesh, regulates all facets of the shipping industry. According to Greenpeace, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO) Guidelines do not contain effective mechanisms to monitor or ensure compliance, nor do they provide adequate guidance for companies, courts and governments on how to deal with the export of ships for scrapping in a manner that is fully consistent with other existing international commitments."<ref name="alam"/>

=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===

== '''China''' ==
=== '''Specific Harms''' ===
=== '''Regulatory Status''' ===
Of the four dominant ship-recycling countries, China is the only one currently acting within the guidelines of a ratified convention. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK), a Tokyo-based ship classification society, released a Statement of Compliance (SOC) to a ship-recycling facility in Jianmeng, China. "The SOC certifies that the ship-recycling facility and its processes comply with the" 2009 Hong Kong Convention. "This marks the first time a ship-recycling facility" has received this kind of certification.<ref name="soc">Anonymous. (2013). China Ship Recycling Facility Becomes First to Receive SOC. ''Sea Technology, 54''(1), 68.</ref>

=='''Pakistan'''==
==='''Industry Overview'''===
The Pakistani shipbreaking industry is the third largest shipbreaking operation worldwide. Located on Gaddani Beach (50 kilometers from Karachi), 38 operators employ between 12,000 and 15,000 workers on 68 active plots. Even with its relatively small changes in tides (between 1 and 3 meters), all ships “but the largest draft vessels” can be beached on Gaddani Beach’s sandy shores. Once the largest shipbreaking operation in the world, Pakistan’s shipbreaking industry has gradually waned due to “rising scrap prices and import duties.” Ship scrap metal and components continue to find quick re-use in the Pakistani economy.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Worker Profile and Working Conditions'''===
The majority of shipbreaking workers are immigrants from Northern India. While union membership is modest, two trade unions do exist: the Ship Breaking Labour Union Gadani and the Ship Breaking Democratic Workers Union. Most laborers do not work under contract. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform reports shantytowns, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare and good drinking water. Labor costs have been described as the “lowest in Asia.”<ref name="galley"/> According to Greenpeace, shipbreaking workers earn the average wage in Pakistan: between $2 and $3 per day.<ref name="hossain"/> Worker protection remains inadequate, but at least shipbreakers in Pakistan make use of machinery rather than manual handling to disassemble ships.<ref name="galley"/>

==='''Environmental Conditions'''===
The Balochistan Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for ensuring that ships may safely be dismantled on Gaddani Beach. Reportedly, inspectors have been known to give the go-ahead on ship dismantling without actually looking inside the ship. It is illegal to resell asbestos in Pakistan, and facilities for asbestos disposal do not exist there. Consequently, bags of asbestos end up lingering in shipbreaking yards.<ref name="galley"/> Environmental watchdogs warn of the dangers of the shipbreaking industry to the coastal ecosystem.<ref name="hossain"/>

==='''Regulatory Status'''===
“Responsibility for environmental and labour matters relating to shipbreaking have been shared between federal and provincial governments.”<ref name="galley"/> Nevertheless, few regulations specifically targeting shipbreaking exist in Pakistan, and those in place are barely enforced.<ref name="galley"/>

=='''Turkey'''==

=='''United States'''==

=='''United Kingdom'''==

=='''References'''==
<references/>

''Previous page:'' [[Green Ships]]

''Next page:'' [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions|Alternative Solutions]]

Green Ships

2015-08-31T05:47:46Z

Beckerr: /* Asbestos */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precautions.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-31T05:46:09Z

Beckerr: /* Beach Shipbreaking */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships: Alternative Solutions

2015-08-31T04:12:10Z

Beckerr:

Green Ships: Alternative Solutions

2015-08-31T04:11:38Z

Beckerr:

=='''Alternatives to Beach Shipbreaking'''==

=== '''Mothballing''' ===
Mothballing, a potential alternative to ship-breaking, is the practice of indefinitely storing a partially or fully decommissioned ship. The vessels are fully equipped for service, but are not currently needed. A negative aspect of mothballing is the expense required for ship upkeep. Likewise, the mothballing process may cause forms of environmental harm.<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>

=='''Improvements to the Shipbreaking Process'''==

=== '''Dry Docking''' ===
'''update information'''
The preferred alternative to beach ship-recycling is dry docking. Dry docking is closely related to mothballing in terms of process, potential environmental harm, and high cost (up to $800,000 per vessel).<ref name="dodds"/> Ships are dry docked in shipyards and harbors; these locations demand high quality waste management due to the particularly high risk associated with polluting water bodies in these places.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S86-S95.</ref> The decommissioned ships can also be sunk to form artificial reefs, although this option is costly due to the need for the removal of "all environmental hazards...prior to sinking."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== '''Toxic Sediments Relocation''' ===
Removing and relocating toxic sediment from ships offers an alternate step in the ship-wrecking process.<ref name="stichnothe">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5''(1), 21-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/jss2005.01.128</ref> Unfortunately, this process proves difficult on two fronts. First, finding a way to collect the sediment and a site in which to deposit it pose a challenge. A second dilemma comes with finding a way to decompose the sediment in an environmentally safe manner.

=== '''Electrochemical Removal of Tributyltin''' ===
A recently explored alternative step in ship-recycling is an electrochemical process that attempts to decompose tributyltin ([http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships#TBT TBT]).<ref name="stichnothe"/> Rather than risk removing the sediment and possibly contaminating the site at which it is stored, the electrochemical process seeks to eliminate the toxins right away.

=== '''Paint Scraping''' ===
In response to bans on TBT, recyclers tried scraping paint from the hulls of ships to remove the toxic TBT-based anti-fouling paint. Unfortunately, this proved to be a dangerous solution. The "washing, scraping, and repainting of boat hulls" jeopardized the health of shipyard workers.<ref name="gipperth"/> Furthermore, the paint dust that entered the air as a result of scraping could easily find its way into the marine environment.

=== '''Alternate Paints''' ===
Over time, ship manufacturers have experimented with a variety of paints as a replacement for TBT-based anti-fouling paints. Unfortunately, the biocides in alternative paints are not as effective as TBT, and using other compounds or metals can be costly. In the end, these alternative paints are more expensive, shorter-lasting, and less effective than their TBT-based predecessors. Consequently, ships painted with alternative paints need more frequent repainting and hull cleanings; fuel consumption may increase, and "trading revenue [suffers] while ships are dry-docked."<ref name="gipperth"/>

Ideally, an effective alternative paint could successfully break into the ship paint market - regardless of its initial cost. Providing precedent, TBT paints were actually very expensive when they first entered the market and became immediately popular. Their great effectiveness at keeping ship hulls devoid of organisms allowed ships to move faster, and in turn, to dump less fuel. This example offers hope that another kind of paint could experience similar success.<ref name="gipperth"/>

''Previous page:'' [[Green Ships]]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships: Alternative Solutions

2015-08-31T04:10:48Z

Beckerr:

Green Ships

2015-08-31T03:52:37Z

Beckerr: /* Environmental Impacts */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==
While dry-dock shipbreaking operations keep toxins contained, beach shipbreaking operations normally allow pollutants to enter the coastal environment. Oil and toxins pour into ocean water and seep into sand and soil. Seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, and fish frequently suffer health problems or die as a result. While mollusks, crustaceans, and fish are able to purify themselves after exposure to low levels of toxins, constant exposure can cause them to die. Moreover, people eating fish exposed to toxins risk ingesting large amounts of hazardous substances. Studies have found that 21 species of fish have disappeared in recent years in Bangladesh. Primary productivity, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos have also diminished in and around shipbreaking yards.<ref name="hossain"/>

Toxins from shipbreaking also damage coastal geology and plant growth. Along the beaches of Chittagong in Bangladesh, oil and the constant disruption caused by moving ships and machinery have caused the disappearance of kelp, mangroves, and grasses. Shore erosion has also accelerated in recent years.<ref name="hossain"/>

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-31T02:49:24Z

Beckerr:

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-08-31T02:47:50Z

Beckerr:

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-08-31T02:47:05Z

Beckerr:

Green Ships:Green Ship Countries

2015-08-31T02:45:05Z

Beckerr:

Green Ships

2015-08-30T18:13:40Z

Beckerr: /* Benefits of Shipbreaking */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The beach shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T06:42:14Z

Beckerr: /* Shipbreaking Methods */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, ship disposal, and ship recycling.<ref name="galley"/> Alternatives to shipbreaking include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T05:13:10Z

Beckerr: /* Alternative Solutions */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Disposal Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T05:12:12Z

Beckerr: /* Dry-Dock Shipbreaking */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock shipbreaking. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound shipbreaking alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to shipbreaking and specific ship dismantling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T05:04:17Z

Beckerr: /* Overview */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to shipbreaking yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to retire ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s shipbreakers, and together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of the light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This shipbreaking hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European shipbreaking facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small shipbreaking industry.<ref name="galley"/> While shipbreakers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials for recycling, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:59:03Z

Beckerr: /* Overview */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:57:56Z

Beckerr: /* Benefits of Shipbreaking and Ship Recycling */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking'''==
The shipbreaking industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:56:50Z

Beckerr: /* Benefits of Ship Recycling */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Shipbreaking and Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:50:52Z

Beckerr: /* Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see the [[Treaties and International Agreements#International Toxics Progress Report Card|International Toxics Progress Report Card]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:48:53Z

Beckerr: /* Occupational Hazards */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships:Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:44:50Z

Beckerr: /* Ship Recycling Methods */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Shipbreaking Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is the disassembly of retired ships. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship scrapping, ship cracking, ship demolition, and ship disposal. Although sometimes used as a synonym for shipbreaking, ship recycling is the actual recycling of ship materials which occurs after shipbreaking.<ref name="galley"/> Other ship disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be disassembled and recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Shipbreaking===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:24:35Z

Beckerr: /* Introduction to Shipbreaking */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:18:39Z

Beckerr:

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

=='''Environmental Impacts'''==

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:13:47Z

Beckerr:

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see the green ships page on'' [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|''occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

=='''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:10:05Z

Beckerr:

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Green Ships#Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see'' [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|''the green ships page on occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T04:05:57Z

Beckerr: /* Occupational */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational Hazards'''==
:''For information on working conditions in specific countries, see'' [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|''the green ships page on occupational and environmental hazards in the main shipbreaking countries'']].

Unfortunately, shipbreaking operations often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the shipbreaking process. Dangerous working conditions occur particularly often in the beach shipbreaking operations of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.<ref name="chang"/> Workers find themselves exposed to harmful toxins, in danger of being injured by falling parts, and imperiled as they use dangerous tools.<ref name="chang"/> Slick surfaces, oxygen depletion in confined spaces, snapping cables, and biological hazards (e.g. infectious disease) also present dangers.<ref name="hossain"/> Historically, “[m]ost of the workers [did not] wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles, and there [were] no warning signs of danger.”<ref name="chang"/> Recently, conditions in India have improved somewhat with the use of hard hats, boots, and gloves.<ref name="penn"/> Nevertheless, accidents and injuries are still common, and safety precautions in Bangladesh and Pakistan remain severely inadequate.<ref name="penn"/> In 2003, 88% of workers in Bangladesh reported suffering from some sort of injury.<ref name="hossain"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with shipbreaking operations. The majority of workers have not been trained to use blowtorches or to remove toxic materials.<ref name="chang"/> Consequently, they inhale noxious fumes produced by burning paint and ship coatings and may come in contact with hazardous materials.<ref name="chang"/> Low wages as well as poor sanitation and living conditions also make life in shipbreaking communities distinctly difficult.<ref name="galley"/> In India, the average daily pay for a shipbreaking worker is US $1.50.<ref name="penn"/> The workforce tends to be young, and in Bangladesh,about 11% of workers are under 18.<ref name="hossain"/> Click [[Green Ships#Green Ship Countries|here]] for more information on working conditions in each of the main shipbreaking countries.

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T03:22:53Z

Beckerr: /* TBT */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. ''Young Power in Social Action (YPSA),'' Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T03:22:08Z

Beckerr: /* TBT */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 90,'' S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T03:21:27Z

Beckerr: /* TBT */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57,'' 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T01:18:36Z

Beckerr: /* Overview */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> It is worthy of note that Turkey also has a small ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-30T01:09:12Z

Beckerr: /* Overview */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref> Turkey also has a small, but notable ship recycling industry.<ref name="galley"/>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-29T05:23:28Z

Beckerr: /* TBT */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-29T05:21:39Z

Beckerr: /* Beach Shipbreaking */

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Green Ships#Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns|Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. (Gipperth) Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-29T05:19:49Z

Beckerr:

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Toxins]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. (Gipperth) Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
<references/>

Green Ships

2015-08-29T05:18:38Z

Beckerr: /* Ship breaking Regulations */

'''BELOW INTRO TEXT COPIED FROM WIKIPEDIA'''
Ship breaking or ship demolition is a type of ship disposal involving the breaking up of ships for scrap recycling. Other names given to the activity of breaking ship into smaller pieces to recycle various materials include ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, ship disposal, etc. Most ships have a lifespan of a few decades before there is so much wear that refitting and repair become uneconomical. Ship breaking allows materials from the ship, especially steel, to be recycled. Equipment on board the vessel can also be reused.

As an alternative to ship breaking, ships are also sunk to make artificial reefs after being cleaned up. Other possibilities are floating (or land-based) storage.

== '''Overview''' ==
Every year, hundreds of ships make their final voyage from the high seas to recycling yards where workers dismantle them for metal and other reusable components. These ships tend to have been deemed unsafe, their steel structures weakened by years of travel on the open ocean. Due to the high cost of repairs and modifications, ship owners often decide to recycle ships after about 20 years. Finding cargo for ships of this age would prove extremely difficult, as cargo-booked ships over 20 years old struggle to qualify for insurance coverage. Asia hosts the majority of the world’s ship recyclers; together, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and China recycle "approximately 89% of light-displacement tons scrapped worldwide."<ref name="dodds">Dodds, D. (2007). Breaking Up is Hard to Do: Environmental Effects of Shipwrecking and Possible Solutions Under India’s Environmental Regime. ''20 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. and Dev. L.J., 207,'' 208-236.</ref>
This ship-recycling hub exists in large part due to the absence of the kind of stringent environmental, occupational safety, and health regulations found in the European Union and the United States. Consequently, American and European ship-recycling facilities have difficulty competing with their Asian rivals.<ref name="chang">Chang, Y., N. Wang & O.S. Durak. (2010). Ship recycling and marine pollution. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60,'' 1390-1396.</ref> While ship recyclers have the opportunity to recover valuable materials, they must also deal with the toxic substances present in ships. Without proper treatment, ship toxins can endanger workers, local communities, and the environment.

=='''Ship Recycling Methods'''==

===Introduction to Shipbreaking===
Shipbreaking is a method of ship disposal in which ships are disassembled for parts. This process is also known as ship demolition, ship dismantling, ship cracking, ship recycling, and ship disposal. Other disposal methods include sinking ships to form artificial reefs or storing them (either on land or in the water).

===Beach Shipbreaking===
Many companies send ships to be recycled in developing countries of South Asia. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, bi-monthly extreme high tides allow these ships to be sailed onto beaches at full speed. Once the tide goes out, workers can begin to disassemble the beached vessels.<ref name="penn">20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 535 2001-2002</ref> Many environmental and safety issues arise with this method of retiring ships (see [[Occupational Hazards]] and [[Toxins]]). While no international laws regulate how ships must be prepared for shipbreaking, international treaties – if enforced – would limit the toxins allowed on beached ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

===Dry-Dock Recycling===
A safer and cleaner alternative to beaching ships can be found in dry-dock ship recycling. Dry docks are massive structures on which ships are decontaminated before being taken apart.<ref name="penn"/> Several nations, including China, the United States, and sometimes India, have dry-dock facilities. Unfortunately, this option is currently very expensive; one vessel might cost up to $800,000 to dry-dock and dismantle.<ref name="dodds"/> Nevertheless, dry-docking remains the most environmentally and socially sound recycling alternative to beach shipbreaking. For information about alternatives to ship recycling and specific ship recycling processes, see [[Green Ships: Alternative Solutions]].

== '''Toxins: Health and Environmental Concerns''' ==

Ships contain many toxins that enter the environment and endanger human health during the shipbreaking process. The most common are tributyltin (TBT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, bilge water, and asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> Other dangerous substances aboard include mercury, radioactive materials, oil and fuel, ballast water, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and batteries.<ref name="galley">Galley, M. (2014). Shipbreaking: Hazards and liabilities. Springer: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.</ref>

=== TBT===
Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly toxic chemical used in the anti-fouling paints applied to the hulls of ships. “Fouling” is the attachment of marine organisms to ship hulls. TBT, which made its first appearance in anti-fouling paints in the 1950’s, presents a danger to both marine life and to humans. Its basic substance, tin, replaced copper, which was previously a common additive. Effective for a longer time period than copper due to its slow degradation in water, tin makes for a more durable paint, but is also more poisonous.<ref name="gipperth">Gipperth, L. (2009). The legal design of the international and European Union ban on tributyltin antifouling paint: Direct and indirect effects. ''Journal of Environmental Management,'' 90, S86-S95.</ref>

TBT is intended to poison organisms that live on ship hulls (i.e. barnacles, shellfish, algae, bacteria, and tube worms).<ref name="gipperth"/>It goes beyond this, though, impacting a wide spread of marine life. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, even low concentrations can cause reproductive dysfunction in aquatic organisms like mussels and oysters.<ref name="kim">Kim, N.S., W.J. Shim, U.H. Yim, S.Y. Ha, & P.S. Park. (2008). Assessment of tributyltin contaminatin in a shipyard area using a mussel transplantation approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 57, 883-888.</ref>Furthermore, TBT builds up in the tissues of sea mammals like seals and whales, and it leads to sterility and sometimes death in invertebrates. (Gipperth) Shipyards and harbors are hotspots for TBT pollution, and the marine life in these places suffers.<ref name="gipperth"/>

Furthermore, TBT poses a potential health threat to shipyard workers and their communities. Anti-fouling paint that has been scraped off of beached ships ends up in the water and soil, and the melting of steel from ships adds TBT to the air.<ref name="galley"/>More research is needed into the human health consequences of eating seafood tainted with TBT<ref name="too">Stichnothe, H., W. Calmano, E. Arevalo, A. Keller & J. Thöming. (2005). TBT-contaminated Sediments: Treatment in a Pilot Scale. ''Journal of Soils and Sediments, 5(1),'' 21-29.</ref>, but it is known that organotins like TBT act as endocrine disruptors in humans.<ref name="hossain">Hossain, Md.M., & M.M. Islam. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management. Young Power in Social Action (YPSA), Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp ix +54.</ref>

The hazards of TBT have prompted many countries to ban TBT-based antifouling paint. In 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Antifouling Systems (AFS) Convention. The Convention entered into force in 2008, calling for a global halt to the application and presence of TBT-based antifouling paints on ships.<ref name="kotrikla">Kotrikla, A. (2009). Environmental management aspects for TBT antifouling wastes from the shipyards. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, S77-S85.</ref>

While these bans aim to remedy harms caused by TBT, they leave a few issues unresolved. TBT remains in sediment for a long time (with a half life of 1 to 9 years in sediment), meaning that it continues to affect places for years after it is banned. Another problem is that banning TBT results in a surge of TBT-based waste. This waste then ends up in shipyards. Finally, a number of countries continue to allow organotin compounds (including TBT) because they lack strict national or regional legislation.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

At this point, no anti-fouling paint has unequivocally replaced TBT-based antifouling paint.<ref name="kotrikla"/>

=== Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (PCB) ===
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are “synthetic organic chemicals”<ref name="dodds"/>that pose a threat to human health, both while in use and during their disposal process. Historically, they were used in “electrical components, cables, vent ducts,…miscellaneous gaskets, insulation materials, adhesives, paint, and various rubber and plastic components.”<ref name="dodds"/>Although the manufacture of PCBs was banned in 1979, <ref name="epapcbs">EPA. (2015) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/.</ref>PCBs remain a common toxin in old ships.<ref name="dodds"/>

Exposure to PCB’s has been linked with a variety of health problems in animals and humans. According to the U.S. EPA, PCBs cause cancer in animals as well as disorders of the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system(EPA). The EPA, along with several other agencies, has also identified PCBs as “probable human carcinogens.”<ref name="epapcbs"/>As with TBT, PCBs endanger human health both through direct contact and through ingestion of contaminated marine life. Fish and marine animals high up in the food chain accumulate high concentrations of PCBs in their flesh, and the people who eat these animals face serious health risks.<ref name="dodds"/>

PCBs persist in the environment and consequently require special care in their disposal. Workers must be trained to handle PCBs, and the chemical either must be safely burned or stored in secure landfills.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, current international treaties have not yet succeeded in ensuring that this occurs. In large part, this is due to the failure of some countries (most notably, the United States) to ratify the agreements (see [[Treaties and International Agreements]]) and to the lack of a “formal policing mechanism” in many of the agreements.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Lead ===
Lead poses a severe health risk to humans. Despite its known dangers, it continues to be used in the manufacture of vessels. Lead "is commonly found in batteries, paints…components of motors, generators, piping, and cables."<ref name="dodds"/>When ingested by children, lead can cause "learning difficulties,...[intellectual and developmental disability,] and delayed neurological and physical development. In adults, lead affects the nervous system, impairing hearing, vision, and muscle coordination."<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Bilge Water ===
Bilge water is an oily waste of liquids and toxic substances that gathers in the bottom of a ship’s hull. It may contain “oil, cargo residues, inorganic salts, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, and mercury.”<ref name="dodds"/> The pooled rainwater and cooling and containment water present in ships during ship breaking adds to the quantity of bilge water. This water ends up spilling into the ocean where it reduces environmental quality.<ref name="dodds"/>

=== Asbestos ===
Asbestos, a historically popular building material, also presents a human health hazard. Despite increased restrictions on new ships, the insulation of old ships often contains asbestos. Inhalation of these fibers is associated with both lung disease and multiple kinds of cancer. In fact, "asbestos is the only known cause of mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs, chest cavity, and abdomen."<ref name="dodds"/> Shipyard workers often develop asbestosis, a lung disease caused by asbestos.<ref name="dodds"/> In order to safely handle asbestos-containing materials, workers must wear highly protective clothing, including respirators and face masks.<ref name="penn"/>In many shipbreaking yards, workers do not take these kinds of precaution.<ref name="chang"/>

=='''Benefits of Ship Recycling'''==
The ship recycling industry provides shipbreaking countries with jobs and also large quantities of valuable materials which can be sold at bargain prices.<ref name="penn"/> Making up 95% of a ship’s hull, steel is the most plentiful recycled material. Producing steel with recycled rather than raw materials saves energy, and this recycled steel can then be used for construction.<ref name="dodds"/> Bangladesh depends on old ships for its steel supply, and shipbreaking in India alone produces 2.5 million tons of scrap steel every year. Old ship parts ranging from engines to air conditioners are also highly desirable.<ref name="penn"/>

In addition to supporting the economy with commodities, shipbreaking also provides a huge number of jobs. In India, about 1 million people work in the shipbreaking industry. Bangladesh and Pakistan also have large shipyard workforces.<ref name="penn"/> Unfortunately, these jobs are highly dangerous. See the section on [[Occupational Hazards|occupational hazards]] for more information on life in the shipbreaking industry.

== '''Occupational'''==
:''See also'' [http://wiki.ban.org/Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries ''Green Ships: Green Ship Countries'']
Unfortunately, ship-breaking sites often concern themselves more with the profitability of the steel and ship parts than with the safety of the ship-breaking process. Subsequently, occupational safety and health issues emerge—particularly in association with the dismantling of beached ships in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. These issues include exposure to harmful toxins, the danger of heavy, falling parts, and the difficulty of using dangerous tools. Ship-recycling "workers in these countries do not wear protective equipment such as helmets, masks, or goggles"; sites do not post danger signs.<ref name="chang"/> In addition to the lack of safety equipment, there is no training to educate workers about the potential harms involved with ship-breaking operations ([[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Alang, India]]). The majority of workers have no training in using blowtorches or in handling the hazardous substances involved in ship recycling.<ref name="chang"/> For that reason, it is not uncommon for them to suffer major accidents. Moreover, workers risk inhaling noxious substances throughout the ship-breaking process. "Toxic fumes are released during the blowtorch-cutting process, and afterward while the paint and coatings may continue to smolder."<ref name="chang"/> The use in ship breaking in developing countries is especially harmful in terms of child labor laws due to lack of guidelines in [[Green Ships: Green Ship Countries|Bangladesh]].

== '''Ship Breaking Regulations''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green Ships:Ship breaking Regulations|'''Current Ship Breaking Regulations''']]

== '''Green Ship Countries''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:Green_Ship_Countries|'''Countries''']]

== '''Alternative Solutions''' ==
''Further information'': [[Green_Ships:_Alternative_Solutions|'''Proposed Green Ship Recycling Options''']]

=='''References'''==
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